A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Science in Education Degree With a Major in School Counseling Approved: 2 Semester Credits _____ Rod Crist, Investigation Advisor The Graduate School University of Wisconsin-Stout August, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder research papers discuss the causes of ADHD. Paper Masters can custom write a research paper on Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). In the work that our writers produce on ADD, the causes are examined and discussed along with the symptoms and treatments for the disorder Sep 30, · Despite this long research history, ADHD is not necessarily well understood among the lay public, given the many controversies and public misconceptions concerning the disorder. 1,2 Longitudinal evidence suggests that childhood ADHD persists into young adulthood in % of the cases when defined relative to same-age peers and in 58% of the Cited by: 92
Understanding Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder From Childhood to Adulthood
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We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates. Children with ADHD experience delays relative to other children of the same age in three areas of their functioning: the ability to regulate behavior and excessive levels of activity hyperactivity ; impulse control or behavioral inhibition; and sustained attention to tasks that are not inherently interesting or rewarding.
Although children diagnosed with ADHD will gradually mature and make gains in these areas as they grow older, many may always lag behind other children of the same age to a significant degree in their behavioral addadhd research papers, impulse control, and sustained attention. It is not unusual for young children to be energetic and active, or to become bored quickly and move from one activity to another as they explore their environment.
However, some children persistently display levels of activity that are far in excess of their age group. Some are unable to sustain their attention to activities, addadhd research papers, their interest in tasks assigned to them by others, or their persistence in achieving long-term goals as well as their peers. Children with ADHD have a greater probability of experiencing a number of problems in their social, academic, and emotional development and daily adaptive functioning.
While the diagnostic labels for disorders of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness have changed numerous times, the actual nature of the disorder has changed little, if at all, from descriptions provided at the turn of the century.
During the past century, and especially during the last 30 years, thousands of published scientific papers have focused on ADHD, making it one of the most wellstudied childhood psychiatric disorders. Serious clinical interest in children who have severe problems with inattention, hyperactivity, and poor impulse control is first found in three published lectures by the English physician, George Still, presented to the Royal Academy of Physicians in Initial interest in children with these characteristics arose in North America around the time of the great encephalitis epidemics of and Children surviving these brain infections were noted to have many behavioral problems similar to those comprising contemporary ADHD.
This term was eventually applied to children without a history of brain damage or evidence of retardation but who manifested behavioral problems such as hyperactivity or poor impulse control. During addadhd research papers s researchers became increasingly interested in hyperactivity, addadhd research papers. By the s research findings emphasized the importance of problems with sustained attention and impulse control in addition to hyperactivity in understanding the nature of the disorder.
In Virginia Douglas proposed that the disorder was comprised of major deficits in four areas: 1 the investment, organization, and maintenance of attention and effort; 2 the ability to inhibit impulsive behavior; 3 the ability to modulate arousal levels to meet situational demands; and 4 an unusually strong inclination to seek immediate reinforcement.
Just as significant as the renaming of the condition at that time was the distinction made between two types of ADD: those with hyperactivity and those without it. Little research existed at the time on the latter subtype. However, addadhd research papers, later research suggested that ADD without hyperactivity might be a separate and distinct disorder of a different component of attention selective or focused than was the addadhd research papers of inattention seen in those with ADD with hyperactivity persistence and distractibility.
Thus, rather than being related subtypes of a single disorder with a shared, common impairment in attention, future research may show these subtypes to constitute addadhd research papers disorders of attention altogether. Within a few years of the creation of the label ADD, concern was raised by Barkley in and Weiss and Hechtman in that problems with hyperactivity and impulse control were features critically important to differentiating the disorder from other conditions and to predicting later developmental risks.
In the disorder was renamed Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Diagnostic symptoms were identified from a single list of items incorporating all three constructs: hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. The subtype of ADD without Hyperactivity was now renamed Undifferentiated ADD and relegated to minor diagnostic status until further research could clarify its nature and relationship to ADHD.
Around this same time mids to s reports began to appear that challenged the notion that ADHD was primarily a disturbance in attention. Over the previous decade, researchers studying information-processing capacities in children with ADHD were having difficulty demonstrating that the problems these children had with attending to tasks were actually attentional in nature i. Problems in response inhibition and preparedness of the motor control system appeared to be more reliably demonstrated.
Researchers, moreover, were finding that the problems with hyperactivity and impulsivity were not separate constructs but formed a addadhd research papers dimension of behavior. All of this led to the creation of two separate lists of symptoms for ADHD when the latest diagnostic manual for psychiatry, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition also known as the DSM-IV was published by the American Psychiatric Association in In the DSM-IV, one symptom list now existed for inattention and another for hyperactive-impulsive behavior.
The inattention list once again permitted the diagnosis of a subtype of ADHD that consisted principally of problems with attention ADHD Predominantly Inattentive Type. But two other subtypes were also identified Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive and Combined Types.
As of this writing, debate continues over the core deficit s involved in ADHD, addadhd research papers, with increasing emphasis being given to a central problem specifically with behavioral inhibition and more generally with self-regulation or executive functioning. The child appears more disorganized, distracted, and forgetful than others of the same age.
Parents and teachers frequently complain that these children do not seem to listen as well as they addadhd research papers for their age, cannot concentrate, are easily distracted, fail to finish assignments, daydream, addadhd research papers, and change activities more often than others, addadhd research papers. Yet objective research does not find children with ADHD to be generally more distracted by most forms of extraneous events occurring during their task performance, although distractors within the task may prove more disruptive to them than to normal children.
Research instead documents that ADHD children are more active than other children, are less mature in controlling motor movements, and have addadhd research papers difficulties with stopping an ongoing behavior.
They are less able to resist immediate temptations and delay gratification and respond too quickly and too often when they are required to wait and watch for events to happen. Recent research shows that the problems with behavioral or motor inhibition arise first, at age 3 to 4 years, addadhd research papers, with those related to inattention emerging somewhat later in the developmental course of ADHD, at age 5 to 7 years.
Whereas the symptoms of disinhibition seem to decline with age, those of inattention remain relatively addadhd research papers during the elementary grades.
Yet even the inattentiveness may decline by adolescence in some cases. A number of factors have been noted to influence the ability of children with ADHD to sustain their attention to task performance, addadhd research papers control their impulses to act, to regulate their activity level, and to produce work consistently. They include: time of day or fatigue; increasing task complexity where organizational strategies are required; extent of restraint demanded for the context; level of stimulation within the setting; the schedule of immediate consequences associated with the task; and the absence of adult supervision during task performance.
It has been shown that children with ADHD are most problematic in their behavior when persistence in work-related tasks is required i.
or where behavioral restraint is necessary, especially in settings involving reduced parental monitoring i. Such children are least likely to pose behavioral management problems during free play, addadhd research papers, when little self-control is required. Fluctuations in the severity of ADHD symptoms have also been documented addadhd research papers a variety of addadhd research papers contexts.
In this case, addadhd research papers, classroom activities involving self-organization and task-directed persistence are the most problematic, addadhd research papers, with significantly fewer problems posed by contexts involving fewer performance demands i. Although ADHD is defined by the presence of the two major symptom dimensions of inattention and disinhibition hyperactivity-impulsivityresearch indicates that these children often demonstrate deficiencies in many other abilities.
These include: motor coordination and sequencing; working memory and mental computation; planning and anticipation or preparedness for action; verbal fluency and confrontational communication; effort allocation; applying organization strategies; the internalization of self-directed speech; adhering to restrictive instructions; the self-regulation of emotions; and self-motivation.
Several studies have addadhd research papers demonstrated what both Still and Douglas noted anecdotally years ago—ADHD may be associated with less mature or diminished moral reasoning and the moral control of behavior. The commonality among most or all of these seemingly disparate abilities is that all fall within the neuropsychological domain described as executive functions.
The neurologist Joaquim Fuster wrote in that these executive abilities are probably mediated by the frontal cortex of the brain, and particularly the prefrontal lobes. Barkley has recently defined executive functions as being those neuropsychological processes that permit or assist with human self-regulation.
Self-regulation is then defined as any self-directed form of behavior both overt and covert that serves to modify the probability of a subsequent behavior by the individual so as to alter the probability of a later consequence. Such behavior may even involve forgoing immediate rewards for the sake of maximizing delayed outcomes or even exposing oneself to immediate aversive circumstances for this same purpose. Self-regulatory behavior, therefore, includes thinking within this realm of private or covert self-directed behavior.
By appreciating the role of the frontal lobes and the prefrontal cortex in these executive abilities, it is easy to see why researchers have repeatedly speculated that ADHD probably arises out of some disturbance or dysfunction of this brain region. Few of these have produced models of the disorder that were widely adopted by both scientists and clinicians or that served to drive further programmatic research initiatives.
Some of these theories have suggested that ADHD is a deficit in sensitivity to reinforcement, a more general motivational disorder, or a deficit in rule-governed behavior i. Most recently, several theorists working in this area have proposed that ADHD represents a deficit behavioral inhibition; an assertion for which there is substantial evidence, at least for those subtypes that involve hyperactive-impulsive symptoms. Addadhd research papers with these proposals, Barkley outlined a model of ADHD in that was based upon an earlier theory by Jacob Bronowski first set forth in on the evolution of the unique properties of human language and their relationship to response addadhd research papers. The four functions are believed to permit and subserve human self-regulation, bringing behavior progressively under the control of internally represented information, addadhd research papers about the future, and transferring it at least partially away from the control of behavior by more immediate consequences and external events.
And, more generally, the interaction of these executive functions permits far more organized and effective adaptive functioning. Several assumptions are important in understanding this model as it is applied to ADHD. Second, inhibition does not directly cause the activation of these executive functions but sets the occasion for their occurrence and is necessary for their effective performance. Fourth, the sweeping cognitive impairments that ADHD creates across these executive functions are secondary to the primary deficit in behavioral inhibition, implying that if inhibition were to be improved, these executive functions would likewise improve.
The deficit in behavioral inhibition is thought to arise principally from genetic and neurodevelopmental origins, rather than from purely social ones, although its expression is certainly influenced by a addadhd research papers of social factors. The secondary deficits in the executive functions and self-regulation created by the primary deficit in inhibition feedback addadhd research papers contribute to further deficits in behavioral inhibition because self-regulation is required for self-restraint.
Prepotent responses are defined as those for which immediate reinforcement both positive and negative is available for their performance or for which there is a strong history of reinforcement in this context. The executive system described here may exist so as to achieve a net maximization of both temporally distant and immediate consequences rather than immediate consequences alone.
The chain of goal-directed, future-oriented behaviors set in motion by these acts of self-regulation is then also protected from interference during its performance by this same process of inhibition interference control. Even if disrupted, the individual retains the capacity or intention via working memory to return to the goal-directed actions until the outcome is successfully achieved or judged to be no longer necessary.
Space permits addadhd research papers only a brief description of each of the four executive components of this new model of ADHD. The first of these involves working memory, or the capacity for prolonging and manipulating mental representations of events and using such information to control motor behavior.
This particular type of memory can be thought of as remembering so as to addadhd research papers and serves to sustain otherwise fleeting information that will be useful in controlling subsequent responding, such as is seen in privately rehearsing a telephone number in mind so as to later dial it accurately. One component of working memory may be related to self-speech verbal working memorywhile a second component is related to perceptual imagery visual-spatial and probably involves self-directed sensing, as in visual imagery or covert audition.
This retention of information related to past events retrospection gives rise to the conjecturing of future events prospectionwhich sets in motion a preparedness to act in anticipation of the arrival of these future events anticipatory set. Out of this continuous referencing or sensing of past and future probably arises the psychological sense of time. These activities taking place in working memory appear to be dependent upon behavioral inhibition.
Such working memory processes have been shown to exist in rudimentary form even in young infants permitting them to successfully perform delayed response tasks to a limited degree. As the capacity for inhibition increases developmentally, it probably contributes to the further efficiency and effectiveness of working memory.
According to this model of ADHD, behavioral inhibition also sets the stage for the development of the second executive component of this model, that being the self-regulation of emotion in children. The inhibition of the initial prepotent response includes the inhibition of the initial emotional reaction that it may have elicited, addadhd research papers. It is not that the child does not experience emotion; rather, the behavioral reaction to or expression of that emotion is delayed along with any motor behavior associated with it.
The delay in responding this creates allows the child time to engage in self-directed behaviors that will modify both the eventual response to the event as well as the emotional reaction that may accompany it. Because emotions are themselves forms of both motivational and arousal states, the model argues that deficits in the self-regulation of emotion should be associated with deficits in self-motivation and the self-control of arousal, addadhd research papers, particularly in the service of goal-directed behavior.
The internalization of self-directed speech, as originally described by Vygotsky, forms the third executive component of this model of ADHD. During the early preschool years, speech, once developed, addadhd research papers initially employed for communication with others. As behavioral inhibition progresses, language becomes turned on the self.
The fourth component of this model involves the capacity to rapidly take apart and recombine units of behavior, addadhd research papers, including language. The delay in responding that behavioral inhibition permits allows time for information related to the event to be mentally prolonged and then dissassembled so as to extract more information about the event that will aid in preparing a response to it.
In a related fashion, addadhd research papers, previously addadhd research papers response patterns can also be broken down into smaller units of behavior. This internal decomposition of information and its associated response patterns permits the complementary process to occur, that being synthesis, or the invention of novel combinations of behavioral structures, including words and ideas, in the service of goal-directed action, addadhd research papers.
ADHD: Controversy, Key Research Findings, Rising Prevalence, and Promise
, time: 1:05:36Overview of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Young Children
A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Master of Science in Education Degree With a Major in School Counseling Approved: 2 Semester Credits _____ Rod Crist, Investigation Advisor The Graduate School University of Wisconsin-Stout August, Sep 30, · Despite this long research history, ADHD is not necessarily well understood among the lay public, given the many controversies and public misconceptions concerning the disorder. 1,2 Longitudinal evidence suggests that childhood ADHD persists into young adulthood in % of the cases when defined relative to same-age peers and in 58% of the Cited by: 92 Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder research papers discuss the causes of ADHD. Paper Masters can custom write a research paper on Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). In the work that our writers produce on ADD, the causes are examined and discussed along with the symptoms and treatments for the disorder
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